Key Medical Applications of Electrospinning

Structural Heart, Coronary, Peripheral, Endovascular, Neurovascular

Cardiovascular applications of electrospinning are among the most advanced in translation to clinics (Tozzi et al., 2025). Electrospun vascular grafts and heart valve scaffolds have been developed to tackle the limitations of conventional implants (Kluin et al., 2017). Small-diameter blood-vessel grafts (for coronary or peripheral artery bypass) made from expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) or Dacron often fail in the long term due to poor cell integration, thrombosis, and loss of patency (Dohmen et al., 2013). Electrospun vascular grafts, by contrast, can be engineered to be biodegradable and to promote true vascular tissue regeneration. They typically use polymers like PCL or poly(4-hydroxybutyrate) (P4HB) that gradually degrade over 1–2 years (De Valence et al., 2012). Upon implantation, the fibrous structure encourages infiltration of endothelial cells and smooth-muscle cells from the host, eventually forming a natural blood vessel and leaving no permanent foreign material. A critical design aspect is pore size: standard electrospinning yields very small pores that can impede cell penetration. Researchers have found that increasing fiber diameter into the few-micron range (e.g., 3–6 µm fibers) creates more macroporous graft walls (~20–30 µm pores) which dramatically improve cell ingrowth and vascular tissue remodeling (Cortez Tornello et al., 2018; Uthamaraj et al., 2016). In one study, a PCL electrospun graft with enlarged pores was implanted as an abdominal aorta in rats; the graft remained patent for 12 months with no aneurysm, and by 3 months it was well populated with cells and new tissue with minimal calcification (De Valence et al., 2012). This demonstrates the potential for electrospun grafts to function as a temporary scaffold that is gradually replaced by the body’s own artery – a concept known as in situ tissue-engineered blood vessels. Such grafts (including those by companies like Xeltis) are in early human trials for coronary bypass and dialysis shunts (Tozzi et al., 2025).

For the structural-heart field, electrospun heart-valve scaffolds are a game-changer. Instead of using permanent prosthetic valves, which are either mechanical (requiring lifelong anticoagulants) or biological (fixed animal tissue that can calcify), a bioresorbable electrospun heart valve could be implanted to initially serve as a functional valve and then induce the patient’s own cells to rebuild a natural valve (Kluin et al., 2017). These scaffolds are typically tri-leaflet valve shapes electrospun from elastic polymers; after implantation, blood flow and natural healing processes lead to host-cell colonization. Over time, the scaffold degrades, leaving a living valve tissue. Early prototypes have been tested in sheep with encouraging results – the valves functioned immediately and gradually converted to tissue valves with stable performance (Kluin et al., 2017). Challenges remain in achieving the necessary durability and preventing the scaffold from degrading too quickly, but the prospect of a regenerative heart valve is on the horizon.

In the realm of endovascular and neurovascular devices, electrospun nanofibers are being used to improve stent grafts and aneurysm treatments. For example, stent grafts used in aortic aneurysms can be lined with an inner electrospun layer to make them blood-tight and promote endothelialization (growth of a blood-compatible lining) (Vahabli et al., 2022). In neurovascular aneurysm therapy, a very fine electrospun membrane has been developed to wrap around stents or coils, acting as a flow-diverter that prompts faster clotting of the aneurysm while encouraging tissue healing across the aneurysm neck (W. Liu et al., 2021). Because the brain arteries are small, only an electrospun membrane can provide the necessary thinness and porosity control for this purpose. Another emerging product is an electrospun vascular patch for surgical closure of vessels – these patches have an advantage in that they integrate into the vessel wall over time, unlike conventional plastic patches (Balà et al., 2024).

Overall, in cardiovascular applications, electrospun devices aim to meld the mechanical support of a synthetic implant with the long-term benefits of regenerated, living tissue. By fine-tuning fiber architecture (e.g., radial alignment of fibers to mimic arterial circumferential strength) and material properties (e.g., using elastic, biodegradable polymers), researchers have created vascular grafts and valve scaffolds that closely emulate the behavior of native tissue and invite the body to heal. The clinical benefits could be profound: patients may receive an implant that self-heals and lasts a lifetime, rather than requiring replacement or causing life-threatening complications during long-term use.

In orthopaedic applications – focusing on bones, joints, and connective tissues – electrospinning is enabling new approaches to repair and regenerate musculoskeletal structures (Di Martino et al., 2011). One major area is bone graft substitutes. Traditional bone grafts (autografts or allografts) carry risks and limitations, so electrospun nanofiber scaffolds are being developed to serve as synthetic bone grafts that are biocompatible and resorbable (Kutikov et al., 2015). As noted above, nanofibers loaded with bone-like, bioactive minerals (hydroxyapatite, β-TCP, bioglass, etc.) provide an osteoconductive matrix that supports the attachment and growth of osteoblasts (bone cells) and mesenchymal stem cells (Kutikov et al., 2015). Studies have demonstrated that such scaffolds can guide the formation of new bone in segmental defects or spinal fusions, with the fibers gradually degrading as natural bone tissue takes over (Kutikov et al., 2015; Nepola et al., 2019). Another focus in orthopaedics is cartilage and ligament repair. Electrospun scaffolds with aligned fibers composed of natural materials such as collagen are particularly useful for soft connective tissues like tendons, ligaments, and the meniscus of the knee, which have highly oriented collagen fiber architecture (Orr et al., 2015). Researchers have created nanofiber scaffolds that imitate the parallel alignment and biochemical composition of tendon fibers, to repair injuries such as rotator cuff tears or Achilles tendon ruptures (Orr et al., 2015). These aligned scaffolds promote linear organization of cells and collagen deposition along the direction of load, resulting in improved tensile strength of the healing tissue (Orr et al., 2015). Similarly, for the meniscus (the fibrocartilage in the knee joint), electrospun fiber mats have been combined with hydrogels to engineer meniscus replacements that are strong yet flexible (Baek et al., 2015). The fibrous component provides the necessary toughness and shape, while the hydrogel or cell-laden matrix promotes cartilage-like extracellular matrix formation (Baek et al., 2015). Early research and animal studies of electrospun meniscus scaffolds show that they can integrate with host tissue and potentially prevent the joint degeneration that often follows meniscus removal (Baek et al., 2015). Additionally, orthopaedic implants (like metal bone implants or joint replacements) can benefit from electrospun nanofiber coatings. For example, coating a titanium orthopedic screw with a thin layer of bioactive electrospun fibers (loaded with an antibiotic or a bone-growth factor) can encourage bone cells to colonize the implant faster and reduce the risk of post-surgical infection (Suchý et al., 2021). Overall, the ability to tailor fiber orientation and composition makes electrospinning a valuable tool in orthopaedics, where matching the mechanical properties and structure of native tissues is critical for successful healing (Di Martino et al., 2011).

Sports medicine overlaps with orthopaedics but often emphasizes soft tissue injuries and their repair in athletic populations (Petrigliano et al., 2015; Savić et al., 2021). Electrospun solutions are being investigated for tendon/ligament injuries and cartilage damage common in sports (Petrigliano et al., 2015; Savić et al., 2021). For instance, anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears in the knee – a frequent sports injury – currently require grafts that may be suboptimal (Petrigliano et al., 2015). Electrospun ligament scaffolds made of biodegradable polymers (such as PCL, sometimes combined with collagen) are being developed to serve as synthetic ACL grafts (Savić et al., 2021). These nanofiber scaffolds can be fabricated with a braided or bundled structure to mimic the ACL and pre-seeded with the patient’s cells or growth factors to promote integration (Savić et al., 2021). Aligned electrospun fibers have shown the ability to induce tendon cells to produce organized collagen and form a neo-tendon that gradually gains strength (Yang et al., 2022). For tendon-to-bone interface (enthesis) injuries – like rotator cuff tears where tendon must reattach to bone – electrospinning offers a way to create graded scaffolds (L. Wang et al., 2022). By varying fiber composition across the scaffold (e.g. more mineral content on one side, more collagen on the other), researchers can mimic the gradual transition from tendon tissue to bone at the enthesis (L. Wang et al., 2022). This is important because a major challenge in healing these injuries is recreating the specialized interface that normally exists. Preliminary studies in animal models have found that electrospun gradient scaffolds improve the fibrocartilage formation at the tendon-bone junction and result in stronger reattachments (L. Wang et al., 2022). In cartilage repair (such as focal articular cartilage defects in a joint), electrospun nanofibers are being used in combination with chondrocytes or stem cells to engineer cartilage patches (Malinauskas et al., 2022). A common approach is a two-layer scaffold: a dense nanofiber layer for mechanical strength and a loosely fibrous or hydrogel layer for cell encapsulation (Malinauskas et al., 2022). This kind of bilayer scaffold can be implanted into a cartilage lesion, where the top strong layer endures joint loading and the bottom layer fosters new cartilage matrix deposition (Malinauskas et al., 2022). One of the benefits seen is that nanofiber scaffolds can be made to release anti-inflammatory drugs or bioactive peptides to modulate the injury environment – a valuable feature in joints, which often develop chronic inflammation after injury (Ye et al., 2022). Athletes also benefit from electrospun protective gear and bandages: companies are exploring electrospun padding materials that are ultra-lightweight for use in helmets or impact-protection inserts, as well as nanofiber wraps for muscle strains that could deliver pain-relief drugs or cooling effects (Alsulami et al., 2025; Baji et al., 2020). While many of these sports medicine applications are still in experimental stages, they highlight the versatility of electrospinning in addressing both the biological and mechanical facets of sports injuries (Petrigliano et al., 2015).

Chronic wounds (such as diabetic foot ulcers, venous ulcers, or large burns) present a significant challenge in medicine (Khil et al., 2003). Electrospun wound dressings have gained significant attention as next-generation wound-care products (Khil et al., 2003). Traditional gauzes or dressings mostly provide coverage, whereas electrospun nanofiber mats can actively promote healing by creating an optimal micro-environment and delivering therapeutics (Khil et al., 2003). Nanofiber wound dressings are typically made of biocompatible and breathable polymers (e.g. polyglactin, collagen, chitosan, or PCL) and are applied as a thin membrane over the wound (Khil et al., 2003). Their fibrous structure closely resembles the skin’s ECM, which helps cells (keratinocytes, fibroblasts) migrate and populate the wound bed, accelerating closure (Khil et al., 2003). Electrospinning also allows the incorporation of healing agents into the fibers for controlled release (Lee et al., 2020). For example, growth factors like EGF or drugs like insulin have been electrospun into nanofiber dressings; studies show that an insulin-loaded nanofiber patch significantly accelerated wound closure in diabetic ulcers by enhancing cell migration and up-regulating pro-healing signals (Lee et al., 2020). Importantly, electrospun dressings maintain a moist environment (beneficial for healing) while being permeable to oxygen, and they can absorb wound exudate due to their porosity (Khil et al., 2003). Many electrospun wound dressings also incorporate antimicrobial components to prevent or combat infection in the wound (Cai et al., 2023). A common strategy is loading fibers with silver nanoparticles or chitosan (a naturally antimicrobial polysaccharide) (Cai et al., 2023). These agents are released at the wound site and have broad-spectrum activity against bacteria (Cai et al., 2023). For instance, a chitosan-infused nanofiber mat has been shown effective against Staphylococcus aureus, a common cause of wound infection (Cai et al., 2023). Likewise, nanofibers with silver or copper have demonstrated the ability to reduce bacterial load in infected wounds, helping to resolve infections faster (Cai et al., 2023). Another advantage is that nanofiber mats can be made adhesive or stimulus-responsive (Liu et al., 2023). Some research groups have created electrospun dressings that adhere to skin when dry but become non-sticky upon hydration, allowing for easy removal without tearing new tissue (Liu et al., 2023). Others have pH-responsive fibers that release antibiotics when the wound’s pH indicates infection (Yingjie et al., 2022). Clinically, patients treated with nanofiber wound dressings have shown faster healing and less scarring in early trials, and such products are already on the market like Restrata® from Acera Surgical  and Phenoex Wound Matrix® from RenovoDerm. The ability to combine multiple functions – structural support, moisture balance, and active drug delivery – in a single mat is what makes electrospun wound dressings especially beneficial for complex wounds that are slow to heal with standard care (Khil et al., 2003).

Electrospinning is increasingly exploited across dentistry because the nanometer-scale fibers and high porosity of the resulting mats reproduce key structural features of the native ECM, supporting cell adhesion and mass transport while allowing precise control over composition, degradation rate, and cargo release profiles (Bottino et al., 2011). This combination makes electrospun scaffolds attractive for periodontal, endodontic, and oral-mucosal regeneration.

Guided tissue regeneration (GTR). In periodontics, barrier membranes are inserted between the gingival epithelium and the underlying defect to block soft-tissue ingress and give periodontal ligament and bone cells time to repopulate. A seminal study by Bottino et al. created a functionally graded PCL membrane whose inner layer was osteoconductive while its outer layer resisted epithelial downgrowth; in a canine fenestration model the membrane significantly enhanced new bone and cementum formation compared with a dense PTFE control (Bottino et al., 2011). More recently, Lin et al. reported an antibacterial/osteogenic “Janus” polyurethane nanofiber membrane; its hydrophilic outer face discouraged fibroblast adhesion, whereas its inner face, laden with bioactive glass and ciprofloxacin, promoted mineralized tissue deposition and suppressed infection in a rat critical-size defect (Lin et al., 2023).

Local antimicrobial and bioactive delivery. Electrospun fibers permit antibiotics or growth factors to be embedded directly in the polymer matrix, achieving high local drug concentrations while minimizing systemic exposure. Budai-Szűcs et al. loaded metronidazole into PLA fibers; sustained release for >14 days suppressed anaerobic periodontal pathogens and reduced inflammatory infiltrate in a ligature-induced periodontitis model (Budai-Szűcs et al., 2020). A dual-drug system by Mirzaeei et al. co-encapsulated amoxicillin and metronidazole in poly(lactic acid-co-glycolic acid)/PCL coaxial fibers, providing staggered release kinetics that matched bacterial-growth dynamics and accelerated pocket healing in vivo (Mirzaeei et al., 2021).

Regenerative endodontics. Electrospun scaffolds are also being tailored for pulp–dentin complex repair. Terranova et al. designed a highly structured 3-D conical scaffold composed of PLA and PCL incorporating tannic acid (TA)  that could be inserted into the cleaned root canal; its aligned lumen guided dental pulp stem-cell migration, while radial porosity supported vascular ingrowth, yielding vascularized pulp-like tissue in an ectopic implant model (Terranova et al., 2021).

Oral-mucosal repair. Postsurgical mucosal defects are challenging because the wet, mobile environment hinders graft fixation. Qian et al. fabricated a leptin-functionalized silk fibroin nanofiber membrane; the hormone-loaded fibers markedly accelerated re-epithelialization and angiogenesis in full-thickness buccal wounds of rabbits, achieving 99% closure by day 14 and forming a stratified epithelium with dense CD34-positive microvessels (Zhang et al., 2017).

Collectively, these studies demonstrate how electrospinning enables dentist-tailored biomaterials that unite structural support with controlled biological function—whether as space-maintaining GTR barriers, smart drug depots, or instructive 3-D templates for pulp or mucosa regeneration. Continued advances in multicomponent and gradient fiber architectures are expected to translate into more predictable, mechanism-based therapies for periodontal and oral-soft-tissue repair.

Electrospun materials are also finding use in general surgical applications where soft tissue needs reinforcement or reconstruction. One prominent example is hernia repair meshes. In hernia repair (such as abdominal wall hernias), plastic meshes (often polypropylene (PP)) have been used for decades to strengthen the abdominal wall (Orenstein et al., 2012). However, traditional meshes are non-degradable and can trigger chronic inflammation, pain, and fibrosis, leading to complications in a subset of patients (Orenstein et al., 2012). Electrospun biodegradable hernia meshes have been developed to address these issues (Hympanova et al., 2018). These nanofiber meshes, made from materials like PCL, polylactic acid (PLA), or silk-fibroin blends, act as a temporary scaffold that supports the tissue as the hernia defect heals, then gradually dissolves to leave only natural tissue behind (Hympanova et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2024). Because the electrospun fibers resemble the size and form of native ECM fibers, like collagen, they promote more natural tissue integration. Studies have shown greater fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition on electrospun meshes compared to conventional woven and knitted plastic meshes (Xiaolong et al., 2018). They also tend to provoke a milder inflammatory response; for instance, macrophages around electrospun meshes often polarize to an M2 (pro-healing) phenotype more than to M1 (pro-inflammatory), which can lead to better healing with less scar tissue (Garg et al., 2013). A further advantage is that electrospun meshes can be designed with mechanical compliance similar to the host tissue (Hympanova et al., 2018). The abdominal wall moves with breathing and strain, and a stiff mesh can cause discomfort or erosion; nanofiber meshes, however, can be engineered to be softer and more flexible, moving in sync with the body (Hympanova et al., 2018). Recent animal tests of electrospun hernia meshes have shown that they support the repair without long-term complications, and even after the mesh resorbs, the repaired site remains strong with organized tissue (Liu et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2024). These favorable outcomes suggest that in the near future, surgeons may have access to hernia meshes that integrate and then disappear, reducing the complication profile of hernia repairs.

Soft tissue reconstruction in plastic surgery can also benefit. For example, breast reconstruction scaffolds: after a mastectomy, a common approach is to use a biologic mesh or acellular dermal matrix to support a breast implant or to guide tissue regeneration. Electrospun meshes are being explored as an alternative – a fully synthetic but bioresorbable scaffold that could support and shape regenerating tissue in breast reconstruction or even serve as a carrier for a patient’s own fat cells (in tissue-engineered reconstruction) (H. Liu et al., 2021). Another area is abdominal wall reconstruction for large defects or after tumor resection. Surgeons sometimes use synthetic meshes or muscle flaps; an electrospun scaffold could provide initial mechanical stability and release regenerative cues like cytokines to encourage muscle tissue regrowth across the defect (Z. Liu et al., 2021). Because electrospun fibers can be loaded with drugs, a mesh could also deliver, for example, an anti-scarring agent or an analgesic locally in the weeks following surgery (Liu et al., 2024).

In summary, for general and reconstructive surgery, electrospun materials offer a biomimetic scaffold that can support soft tissues and then safely resorb ideally leaving a healed, native-tissue repair. The clinical benefit is a reduction in foreign-body reactions and long-term complications associated with implant-related fibrosis, plus the possibility of integrating stem cells or drugs directly into the scaffold for enhanced healing.

Neurosurgical applications of electrospinning focus on repairing or replacing tissues of the nervous system and its protective coverings. A key area of interest is nerve regeneration in the peripheral nervous system. When a peripheral nerve (like the sciatic nerve) is severed, a nerve guide conduit is often used to direct regrowth. Electrospun nanofiber nerve guides have shown superiority over empty tubes or random-matrix guides because the aligned fibers inside the conduit provide physical and contact guidance to the regrowing axons (Zhu et al., 2011). As mentioned under tissue engineering, oriented electrospun fibers help direct axonal extension and can be combined with cues like gradients of nerve growth factor (Dinis et al., 2014). Some electrospun nerve conduits also incorporate Schwann cells (the glial cells that support nerves) or stem cells, which can be delivered along the fibers to enhance regeneration (Frost et al., 2018). Animal studies have demonstrated that nanofiber-based nerve conduits result in more robust nerve recovery (better muscle re-innervation and sensory return) compared to traditional collagen tubes (Zhu et al., 2011).

Beyond peripheral nerves, electrospinning is being applied to neurosurgical membranes. The brain and spinal cord are covered by the dura mater, a thick membrane that sometimes needs patching after surgeries (e.g., to prevent cerebrospinal fluid leaks). Electrospun dural substitutes have recently been developed and even cleared for clinical use (Shaukat et al., 2024). For example, a product called ArtiFascia® manufactured by Nurami is a dual-layer electrospun nanofiber dura patch: one layer mimics the natural fibrous structure of dura and encourages tissue ingrowth, while an outer layer is non-porous to prevent fluid leakage (Shaukat et al., 2024). These nanofiber dural grafts are fully synthetic but integrate well with the patient’s tissue and eventually are resorbed and replaced by native fibrous tissue – offering an alternative to using animal-derived dura or silicone sheeting (Shaukat et al., 2024).

In brain injury or tumor surgery, electrospun scaffolds can also be used to aid reconstruction of resected tissue or to deliver drugs to the site (Tseng et al., 2013). For instance, after removing a brain tumor, an electrospun polymer film loaded with chemotherapy drugs can be placed in the cavity to kill residual tumor cells (similar in concept to the existing Gliadel® wafer, but with a nanofiber matrix to better control drug release) (Tseng et al., 2013). Additionally, research is exploring electrospun mats as anti-adhesion barriers in spine surgery – placed between spinal cord and surrounding tissue to prevent scar tissue that can cause tethering (Liu et al., 2017). These mats must be biocompatible and resorbable; electrospun polyethylene glycol or polycarbonate urethane fibers have been trialed for this purpose (Arjun and Ramesh, 2012; Chen et al., 2015). Another cutting-edge idea is using electrospun ultra-fine fibers as injectable meshes to treat spinal cord injury: a very soft, web-like electrospun scaffold could be inserted into a spinal cord lesion minimally invasively, providing a structure for neurons to grow on and possibly releasing neurotrophic factors to stimulate repair (Johnson et al., 2019).

In the ENT field, one of the compelling applications of electrospinning is the repair of the tympanic membrane (eardrum). Chronic perforations of the eardrum can cause hearing loss and recurrent infections, and while paper patches or gels are sometimes used to encourage healing, success is variable. Electrospun nanofiber scaffolds have been developed as advanced eardrum implants (myringoplasty devices) that imitate the fibrous layers of the native tympanic membrane (Benecke et al., 2022). A recent study created a biomimetic eardrum patch by electrospinning a blend of silk fibroin and PCL into a thin membrane (Benecke et al., 2022). This electrospun membrane had mechanical properties (strength and vibratory behavior) tuned to match the human eardrum, and when tested in cadaver ears, it restored acoustic function for moderate-sized perforations (Benecke et al., 2022). The nanofiber patch is transparent and handles similarly to real eardrum tissue, which is advantageous for surgical placement and monitoring. Such scaffolds provide a structure for the patient’s own cells to grow across the perforation, eventually integrating into a new eardrum. Early pilot clinical applications have shown that nanofiber eardrum patches can result in higher closure rates of perforations and improvement in hearing outcomes compared to conventional treatments, likely due to the scaffold’s ability to support organized tissue regrowth (Sainsbury et al., 2022).

Another ENT application is in reconstructing small laryngeal or tracheal defects. Electrospun sheets of biopolymers can serve as grafts for repairing the trachea (windpipe) or reinforcing surgical repairs in the throat, given their flexibility and biocompatibility (Tang et al., 2023). For example, after removal of a laryngeal tumor, an electrospun patch might be used to cover the mucosal defect and deliver growth factors that expedite healing of the airway lining (Tang et al., 2023). In sinus surgery, clinicians have interest in electrospun packing materials that could stabilize septum or sinus linings post-surgery and dissolve over time, possibly releasing drugs (like corticosteroids to reduce inflammation, or antimicrobials to prevent infection). Electrospun chitosan mats, for instance, could function as a hemostatic and antibacterial dressing inside the nasal cavity after sinus surgery, avoiding the need for painful gauze removal (Kohsari et al., 2016).

Furthermore, electrospun scaffolds for ear cartilage regeneration are being studied. Patients with outer-ear defects (from trauma or congenital microtia) currently undergo ear reconstruction using rib cartilage or 3D-printed scaffolds. A nanofiber scaffold seeded with cartilage cells could potentially be used to grow ear-shaped cartilage with a more lifelike structure (Xue et al., 2013). The fine fibers allow chondrocytes to deposit cartilage matrix in a controlled way, and the scaffold’s porosity ensures nutrients reach all cells. If successful, this approach could eliminate the need for painful rib-cartilage harvests.

In summary, ENT applications of electrospinning, though in relatively early stages, have demonstrated tissue-mimicking scaffolds that improve the repair of delicate structures like the eardrum and airway. The clinical benefits include more effective healing (e.g., higher eardrum-closure success), restoration of function (hearing), and reduction in secondary procedures or complications by using materials that integrate and then disappear.

The eye is another arena where electrospun nanofibers are making an impact, e.g.  CorNeatTM from CorNeat Vision Ltd. The primary targets in ophthalmology are the cornea (the clear front of the eye) and the ocular surface (conjunctiva and sclera), as well as drug delivery to intraocular tissues. Electrospun corneal scaffolds are being developed to address corneal blindness and injuries. The cornea must be transparent and curved, so creating a scaffold is challenging – but electrospinning can produce ultrathin, highly aligned fiber mats that replicate the stromal layer of the cornea (Salehi et al., 2017). Researchers have electrospun fibers from materials like collagen, gelatin, or PCL in aligned arrangements and even stacked them in layers with different orientations (to mimic the native lamellar structure of corneal stroma). These nanofiber scaffolds are seeded with corneal stromal cells and have shown the ability to support cell growth and maintain transparency (Salehi et al., 2017). An exciting application is as a corneal implant (keratoprosthesis) for patients who cannot get a donor cornea. A pilot study in rabbits used an electrospun collagen-PCL scaffold as a corneal substitute and found that host cells populated the scaffold and nerves grew into it, partially restoring corneal function, and the implant remained clear (Tang et al., 2023). Similarly, electrospun corneal bandages are being developed for treating corneal wounds or ulcers: a biodegradable nanofiber contact lens that can lay over the cornea, keep it hydrated, and release drugs to promote healing (Mahmood et al., 2023). These nanofiber bandages adhere well and can be formulated to slowly release antibiotics or anti-scarring agents to the cornea. Because the fibers are nanoscale, the bandage is transparent and does not impede vision much, which is a big advantage for patient comfort and compliance (Mahmood et al., 2023). In ocular drug delivery, electrospun nanofibers offer a solution for sustained delivery in the eye, which is usually difficult due to tear wash-out or rapid drug clearance. One example is an electrospun insert loaded with anti-glaucoma drugs that can be placed in the conjunctival sac, releasing medication over weeks – potentially replacing daily eye drops (Shaikhi Shoushtari et al., 2024). Another is a nanofiber mat that can be applied inside the eye during surgery (for example, at the retina) to release neuroprotective drugs or anti-VEGF agents (for macular degeneration) in a controlled manner (Guerra et al., 2023). These could reduce the frequency of intraocular injections required (Guerra et al., 2023). Electrospun fibers have also been used to engineer tissues like the conjunctiva (for patients with severe burns to the eye surface) by creating a scaffold that favors epithelial cell growth and is later implanted to reconstruct the ocular surface (Bosworth et al., 2021). The sclera (white of the eye) could similarly be patched with electrospun material in case of thinning or rupture (Bosworth et al., 2021). The benefit of electrospinning in ophthalmology is the fine control over fiber dimensions and alignment, which is crucial for optical properties and for guiding cell orientation (important in cornea, where cells and collagen are highly ordered) (Salehi et al., 2017). Additionally, the gentle fiber deposition allows incorporation of sensitive biomolecules like growth factors without destroying them, which is useful for healing in the immune-privileged but delicate environment of the eye (Mahmood et al., 2023). As a result, electrospun ophthalmic devices aim to improve healing outcomes (clearer corneas, stronger repairs) and patient convenience (long-acting drug delivery reducing reliance on drops or frequent procedures).

Electrospinning is redefining biomaterial design for female pelvic-floor disorders by enabling meshes, slings, and drug depots that more closely match the mechanical and biological requirements of the urogenital tract. Conventional knitted PP meshes can provoke chronic pain, erosion, and stiffening because their fiber diameter and porosity differ markedly from native vaginal lamina propria; electrospun nanofibrous matrices provide a softer, more compliant architecture while maintaining surgical‐handling strength (Vashaghian et al., 2017).

Pelvic-organ-prolapse (POP) repair. A feasibility study in rats showed that an electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) mesh modified with ureidopyrimidinone conserved physiologic musculofascial compliance and supported host remodeling better than PP, indicating the value of supramolecular chemistry for tailoring degradation and elasticity (Hympanova et al., 2017). Building on this, an absorbable P4HB nanofiber scaffold fabricated entirely by electrospinning demonstrated enhanced cellular responses compared to knitted P4HB meshes, including increased vaginal fibroblast proliferation and ECM deposition, underscoring the potential of fully absorbable, ECM-mimicking implants for POP repair (Verhorstert et al., 2022).

Stress urinary incontinence (SUI). Electrospinning also facilitates bioactive slings. Kim et al. seeded muscle-precursor cells onto a PCL nanofiber sheet and implanted it beneath the urethra of pudendal-nerve–denervated rats; the engineered sling restored leak-point pressure to near-baseline levels after four weeks, demonstrating functional regeneration of the urethral sphincter (Kim et al., 2012). Because drug molecules can be co-spun or coaxially encapsulated, infection-prone slings could be endowed with localized antimicrobial release or growth-factor gradients without compromising fiber integrity.

Localized vaginal therapy. The mucoadhesive nature of nanofiber mats has been exploited to treat bacterial vaginosis. Metronidazole-loaded poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/PCL fibers produced sustained local concentrations for ≥48 h and showed potent activity against anaerobic pathogens while minimizing systemic exposure, a distinct advantage over conventional gels or tablets (Tuğcu-Demiröz et al., 2020). Similar drug-eluting fibers are being explored for prophylactic delivery of probiotics and anti-inflammatory agents following reconstructive surgery.

Bladder tissue engineering. For large defects after cystectomy, multilayered electrospun PLLA scaffolds coated with human amnion-derived or bladder extracellular-matrix proteins have promoted rapid urothelial coverage and organized smooth-muscle regeneration in rabbits, with no diverticulum or stone formation after eight weeks (Gholami et al., 2024). Electrospinning’s capacity to stack fibers of differing composition and orientation in discrete layers allows mechanical anisotropy that mimics the detrusor and lamina propria, while providing internal reservoirs for angiogenic or anti-calcification cues.

Collectively, these studies underscore how electrospinning’s control over fiber diameter, alignment, and composition yields urogynecologic implants that integrate, remodel, and, when desired, disappear—addressing the safety concerns that have curtailed earlier mesh technologies while opening avenues for combination devices that deliver cells or therapeutics in situ.

Electrospinning has revolutionized tissue engineering by providing scaffolds that closely resemble the body’s ECM – the natural fibrous network that supports cell attachment and tissue formation (Li et al., 2002). Electrospun scaffolds offer a high surface area for cell adhesion, appropriate porosity for nutrient flow, and the ability to incorporate biochemical cues (growth factors, etc.) directly into the fibers (Li et al., 2002; Yoshimoto et al., 2003). These characteristics are crucial for encouraging cells to grow, proliferate, and differentiate into functional tissue (Li et al., 2002). For example, in cardiac tissue engineering, aligned electrospun nanofibers have been used to orient cardiomyocytes (heart muscle cells) in the same direction, mimicking the alignment in native heart muscle . This alignment significantly improves the contractile function of engineered heart patches, as the cells can beat in unison along the fiber direction (Kai et al., 2011). Studies have shown that polymer scaffolds (e.g. poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) or gelatin nanofibers) seeded with cardiomyocytes lead to enhanced synchronous contraction and could help repair myocardial infarcts by integrating with the heart tissue (Du et al., 2019; He et al., 2018). In neural tissue engineering, electrospun fibers provide physical guidance for regenerating neurons (Yang et al., 2005). Aligned nanofibers (often functionalized with electrically conductive polymers like polypyrrole or polyaniline) can direct axon growth along a desired path, essentially serving as “tracks” for neurons to reconnect (Sun et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2005). Incorporating conductive materials also allows the scaffold to deliver electrical cues to nerve cells. For instance, electrospun nerve conduits with polypyrrole have promoted Schwann cell proliferation and nerve fiber regeneration in vivo by providing electrical stimulation in addition to topographical guidance (Sun et al., 2019, 2016). In bone tissue engineering, electrospun fiber meshes are used as scaffolds for bone regeneration, often loaded with osteoconductive nanoparticles (Venugopal et al., 2008). Materials like hydroxyapatite (the mineral component of bone), β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP), or bioactive glass can be blended into biodegradable nanofibers to create composite scaffolds that encourage bone cells to attach and form mineralized matrix (Ba Linh et al., 2013; Venugopal et al., 2008). These composites not only mimic the composition of bone (collagen fibers with mineral crystals), but they can also release calcium and phosphate ions which stimulate osteogenesis (Venugopal et al., 2008). For example, researchers have electrospun polycaprolactone (PCL) or gelatin fibers containing nano-hydroxyapatite; the resulting scaffold showed improved integration with host bone and supported the differentiation of stem cells into bone-forming cells (Naudot et al., 2020). One challenge with electrospun bone scaffolds is the typically small pore size (~1–10 µm) which can limit cell infiltration; to address this, methods like multilayered or highly porous fiber deposition are used to achieve larger pores (hundreds of microns) necessary for vascularization and bone in-growth (Phipps et al., 2012). Despite such challenges, electrospun scaffolds have shown great promise in regenerating tissues ranging from skin and muscle to liver and blood vessels, by virtue of their ECM-mimicking architecture and the ability to fine-tune mechanical and biochemical properties to match the target tissue (Li et al., 2002).

Electrospun nanofibers offer a uniquely versatile system for drug delivery, combining sub-micron dimensions, extremely high surface-area-to-volume ratios, and the ability to tailor fiber composition and architecture with sub-cellular precision. These attributes translate into rapid wetting, tunable degradation, and facile encapsulation of both small-molecule and biologic cargos—features that have been systematically catalogued in recent comprehensive reviews of the field (Luraghi et al., 2021).

Fast-dissolving oral and buccal systems. For drugs whose bioavailability is dissolution-limited, electrospinning can create “polymer-free” inclusion-complex fibers that disintegrate within seconds on the tongue or buccal mucosa. Celebioglu and Uyar produced hydroxy-propyl-β-cyclodextrin/ibuprofen webs that dissolved completely in artificial saliva in <10 s and preserved the amorphous drug state, achieving 100-fold faster dissolution than crystalline ibuprofen (Celebioglu and Uyar, 2019). Similar cyclodextrin or hydrophilic-polymer systems are now being explored for sublingual rescue analgesics and pediatric dosing, where needle-free, water-free administration is critical.

pH-triggered colon targeting. Electrospinning is equally adept at producing site-specific enteric carriers. Diclofenac-loaded Eudragit L100-55 nanofibers remained intact at pH 1.2 but disintegrated rapidly above pH 6.8, releasing >90% of the payload in simulated colonic fluid and eliminating gastric exposure (Shen et al., 2011). Surface functionalization with mussel-inspired catechol motifs has further enabled pH-responsive coatings that switch from hydrophobic to hydrophilic states in the colon, modulating burst release without compromising mechanical integrity (Jiang et al., 2014).

Multi-drug and sequential release. Core–shell or multi-layer architectures produced by coaxial electrospinning decouple incompatible actives and program sequential kinetics. Qian et al. demonstrated acetaminophen-loaded poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) shells surrounding ethyl-cellulose cores; an immediate 40% burst from the shell was followed by a zero-order release from the core for 24 h, and the second-phase dose could be tuned simply by varying core feed concentration (Qian et al., 2014). Extending this concept to combination therapy, Li et al. separated rifampicin and isoniazid into discrete core and shell domains, preventing rifampicin degradation and enabling synchronous, 72-h release—an attractive strategy for shortening tuberculosis regimens (Li et al., 2022).

Implantable long-acting depots. Mechanical robustness and weaveability allow electrospun fibers to be processed into suturable “nanotextiles” that act as drug reservoirs in vivo. Padmakumar et al. wove paclitaxel-loaded polydioxanone nanoyarns into implants that delivered sub-micromolar drug levels intraperitoneally for 60 days, doubling median survival in murine ovarian-cancer models relative to weekly injections while avoiding systemic peaks (Padmakumar et al., 2019). Because drug flux is governed by fiber diameter, packing density, and polymer degradation, the same textile concept is now being generalized to steroids for chronic pain and antivirals for local HIV prophylaxis.

Transdermal and topical delivery. Electrospun mats conform intimately to skin micro-topography and can maintain a moist interface that accelerates healing. A ciprofloxacin-loaded PVA/alginate nanofiber patch achieved sustained local concentrations above the minimum inhibitory level for 72 h and reduced bacterial load four-fold in full-thickness murine wounds compared with solution dosing (Kataria et al., 2014). By adjusting fiber hydrophilicity and cross-link density, release can be stretched from hours to weeks without altering drug chemistry—a flexibility unmatched by solvent-cast films or hydrogels. Another example of delivering antibody-based biologics to the oral mucosa is the dual-layer mucoadhesive patch comprising electrospun medical-grade polymers in development by AFYX .

Collectively, these exemplars illustrate how electrospinning bridges the gap between rapid-dissolving oral films and months-long implantable depots, all while accommodating fragile biologics, combination regimens, and stimulus-responsive polymers. Continued advances in multi-fluid spinning, inline analytics, and medical-grade up-scaling are expected to translate these laboratory successes into next-generation products that deliver drugs exactly where—and for exactly as long—as therapy demands.